Oxfam Operational Management

The purpose of this assignment is to apply the main theories within operations management to summaries and critically evaluate the main issues facing Sofas within the following strategic and operational contexts: l. Globalization and International management II. Environmental management Ill Social responsibility lb. Technology v. Knowledge Management Figure 1 The Operations Strategy and Management model (Slack, N. , Chambers, S. , Johnston, R. , 2007) 1 Sofas Background Information The name Sofas comes from the Oxford Committee for Famine Relief, founded in Britain in 1942 during Second World War.Sofas International was formed in 1995 by a group of independent non-governmental organizations. Sofas is an independent organization affiliated to Sofas International, a global confederation of 14 independent Sofa's (www. Spam. Org). In 2010 Sofas was working in 99 countries. Sofas works directly with communities to find and influence solutions to poverty and injustice (www. Sofas. Org). So fas are working on development programs, emergency work and research. In 1948 Sofas opened its first charity shop. Sofa's current network of more than 830 charity shops are run by about 22000 volunteers and are a key source of income.Orders can be made by mail or over the Internet. Sofas teamed up with Yahoo! (Carroll, 2010) Sofas has an annual expenditure of US $700 million and employs around 1300 staff, of whom around 700 are based in Oxford, I-J, ND the others, together with about 1 500 locally recruited staff, work overseas. Sofas is best known for its work in emergency situations providing humanitarian aid where it is needed. However much of Sofa's work continues after the initial response. Sofa's Strategic plan 2007/10 underlines five main objectives (www. Sofas. Erg): The right to a sustainable livelihood The right to basic social services The right to life and security The right to be heard The right to equity (gender and diversity) The above describes Sofa's mission stateme nt â€Å"A world without poverty and equal human rights for all people†. The Although all operations are similar, they all transform input resources into output products and services, they do differ (Slack, 2007). The Four Vs. – Volume, Variety, Variation and Visibility, have implications for the cost of product, or in case of Sofas service, to its beneficiaries.As Sofas is a non profit organization and the interest is provide improvement of lives and fast response to natural and political disasters in Third World Countries, it could be said that their success could be measured in how well tenet support Ana Involvement rennet's on loveliness AT tense teen are knelling o. The Volume for Sofas is measured by the improvement of living conditions, by how many people have an access to clear water or how many lives are saved after a natural disaster. Sofas is involved in many projects therefore the Variety should be seen as high.However due to the nature of the work Sofas do es and the help they provide, the variety demands high level of flexibility from Sofas, its employees and volunteers. In the case of a charity the Variation should be relatively low. And many charity organizations are concentrating on to one issue only. However Sofas is known for heir involvement in many projects and can offer help in various situations, natural disasters, political rows in countries of the third world, where many people are being denied a decent living.As well as providing safe water projects around the world, building schools and many others. Sofa's Variation is therefore higher than many other charities but still would not be consider high as in a profit organization. Due to the nature of raising money for their operations via their shops, appeals and various projects, the Visibility of Sofas and its people is high. The argument could be hat Sofas has more back office staff than front office and therefore the visibility is not as high. However such an argument ca n be dismissed based on the overall focus on Sofas.The contact with people is necessary for the nature of the business. Sofa's 4 Vs. summarizes in Figure 2. [pick] Figure 2 The 4 ‘v†s module in relation to Sofa's operations Operations performance objectives There are five basic performance objectives which apply to all type of organizations (Slack, 2007). These objectives specifically relates to a basic tasks of satisfying customer requirements. Every organization has stakeholders who have a high interest in its operations. As per Slack Sofa's stakeholder groups can overlap.Sofa's volunteers who work in charity shops could also be employees as well as customers. Therefore a not for profit organizations who are influenced by more complex factors which they can not affect such as natural disasters, has to even more so define its operation's role, position and operation strategic objectives to show their stakeholders how they perform. The five objectives are quality, speed, dependability, flexibility and cost. Sofas aims to deliver high quality in each situation and project they are involved in.The quality s measured by the satisfaction of customers however in Sofa's case the satisfaction is not going to be reflected the same way as satisfaction with product or service of companies who produce these for profit. Sofa's customers are in many cases highly satisfied with a bare minimum of life standards and the help they receive. However quality coo a De considered Trot ten way AT Improvements AT humans' lives and livelihoods and its sustainability. Speed is something that is of a very high importance for Sofas. To respond fast to natural and other disasters is number one priority.The speed of the response could mean the difference between life and death. However improvement of women's rights and Sofas project of bringing education to all is anything but a speedy as the importance is to stabilize the changes first to make sure they are going to be permane nt improvements to their lives. For Sofas stakeholders dependability is a very important factor. For the people who receiving the help and support it is important to know that the support will be there and it is not Just a promise. For the volunteers and people who donated it is important to see that changes are being made and support is being given.Flexibility is the highest priority. Sofas is not only involved in various projects around the world but also needs to be able to change their plans and actions to respond fast to many situations such as political changes within the country where they providing their support. Or in the case of natural disaster, Sofas needs to be ready to respond fast, to provide basic supplies for humanitarian support. Their employees and volunteers need to be flexible to react quickly to safe lives and livelihood. Operations have to change at short notice.Even the charity shops which are mostly stable operations have to be flexible and sometimes change their operations to respond to situation in the world. In the case of natural disasters the nature of donations needs to change, not only cash donations are required but food, clothes or blankets. Cost is a very difficult measurement for a charity organization. It is important to keep its costs down to achieve more with the money raised however in many situations it is not about keeping the cost low but about saving lives, providing fast response and help when its needed and this can drive cost up.With natural disaster it is not important the amount invested in to the help but the help that is provided. When people loose everything even a little amount of help and support is highly appreciated and therefore the cost is not of a high importance. Figure 3 Sofa's Polar Diagram The role of operations Operations management can make or break any business (Slack, 2007). Hayes and Wheelwright's four stages of operations contribution evaluate the role and contribution of the operations funct ion (Slack, 2007). Sofa's operations are at stage 4.Sofas does compete with other charities for donations and volunteers. However, where other charities offering food and money, Sofas offers lives stock, seeds, smelter, coeducation anon T s well as money winner teen are name (www. Sofas. Org). Sofas gets involved in peoples live for longer to assure long term improvements in their livelihoods. Figure 4 The four stage model of operations contribution. Operations Strategy Operations strategy concerns the pattern of strategic decisions and actions which set the role, objectives and activities of the operations (Slack, 2007).Sofa's operation strategy is to reduce and eliminate the causes of poverty and suffering (www. Sofas. Org). As an objective the Sofa's 5 Aims are used to build the operations strategy, the top down perspectives. The bottom up perspective is reflected in improvement for the next project Sofas gets involved as the knowledge management aspects will affect how the next operation is managed. Market requirements are reflected in the numbers of people Sofas has helped to rebuild their lives. However for a not for profit organization the strategy is more complex and is affected by The Operations Challenge.Figure 5 The four perspectives on operations strategy The Operations Challenge Although operations management is seen by some as being concerned largely with the routine aspects of business, it is in fact at the very forefront of almost all equines challenges (Slack, 2007). There are many changes that the operations management needs to understand, be concerned with and adjust to. The challenges and changes in the world can be seen as a positive change which helps with Sofa's 5 Aims detailed in section 1. 1 and in appendix 1 .These are highly affected by many challenges and operations managers should be familiar with Sofa's Aims and developments to be able to apply appropriate strategies. 1 Globalization With opening of new international market were o pened many new opportunities for operations managers to develop supplier relationships (Slack, 2007). Important for Sofas as the need to have a fast and affordable access to supplies all around the world, to be able to respond fast is high on their operations strategies. The Ethical globalization affects Sofa's political affluence and it works well with ethical approaches.Acknowledging shared responsibilities for addressing global challenges and affirming that our common humanity does not stop at national borders (Slack, 2 Corporate Social Responsibility In a modern business there is more and more pressure on to the general well-being of society. Economic development on a global level cannot be separated from questions of social Justice and from ecological stability (Discarding, cited in Walleye, 2008). It is a nature of Sofas business to assure that all humans are being treated with respect and as equals.As per Sofas, nobody should compromise on their human rights. Sofas provides a ssistance and protection to ordinary men, women and children caught up in conflict or natural disasters (www. Sofas. Org). It is Sofa's believe that all people have social, economic, political and civil rights as well as rights under humanitarian law (www. Sofas. Org). Not only Sofas provides provisions of eater, sanitation and hygiene promotion they also lobby governments and the international community to live up to their responsibilities to protect civilians (www. Sofas. Org).However it needs to be considered that what might be unremarkable in one country ethical framework could be regarded as highly dubious in another's (Slack, 2007). 3 Environmental Responsibility Environmental Responsibility is getting on to an agenda of any organization. Sofas is highly involved in campaigning for Climate Change. During 2010 over 1. 5 million people in 35 countries attended Climate Hearings organizes by Sofas and its ratters (www. Sofas. Org). These are organizes by Sofas to voice directly to global policy environments the reality of Global warming and its effects on to those living in poverty.Sofas is committed to reduce their carbon footprint by setting and delivering yearly targets (www. Sofas. Org). 4 Technology Technology has impact of some sort in almost every area of operations management (Slack, 2007). Internet has the biggest impact on how the business operates. Sofas improved their engagement with their supporters due to internet and other digital communications (www. Sofas. Org). This has resulted in to increase in online donations to over E. Mm in 2010. Sofas therefore invests more of their resources in to improvement of their website.Technology is also changing the ways Sofas International works. Introduction of Single Management Structure is a big step which wouldn't be possible without constant changes in technology. Supply network is also more simple and faster due to new technologies. Technology has a huge impact on to Sofas operations and the speed the y can reach people in need. 5 Knowledge Management Knowledge is rich, interpretative and often value-laden. In very complex operations recesses, It may De almost Impossible to make ten totality AT Knowledge concerning processes fully and entirely explicit (Slack, 2007).Sofa's operations the explicit knowledge is not possible. Sofas knowledge management is build over time and is a result of Sofas experience in various projects and responses to different situations. Sofas therefore employs the Tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge may be observed and accumulated over time (Slack, 2007). Sofa's strategies are changing based on their understanding of how the world is changing for poor people and what the best response to it would be (www. Sofas. Erg). Sofas needs to understand these changes and react with agility and effectiveness to maximize their impact on to poor people.By improving knowledge management Sofas improves disaster preparedness and response the main purpose of their business. Being an international organization that responds to human needs anywhere in the world it is highly important for Sofas to have a local knowledge. Supplies, its availability and access to it, are a need for Sofas and the knowledge of local suppliers is strategically important. Sofas is building team of trainers and experts to implement their new system around the oral (www. Sofas. Org).Security of their aid workers a knowledge of political situations and predictions in many parts of Third World countries is necessity. Supply Network Every operation is a part of a larger and interconnected network of other operations. Supply network will include suppliers and customers (Slack, 2007). As Sofas works all around the world and has to be able to respond fast to a natural disaster it has to consider many ways of supply. Design decisions of Sofas supply network are important agenda for its operations and supply managers. Sofas supply planning is very unpredictable.They have a network of sup pliers they working with to make sure they are able to react fast to any natural disaster. However to work with the affected community in a longer term they need to be able to find new suppliers in a very short time period who are closer to the area of disaster and can supply the needs of the situation. Attachment 1 states Sofa's supply policy in detail. In the policy Sofas is not only concentrating on to its supply and demands but also concentrate on to the operations challenges as described in section 4 of this assignment.The nature of Sofa's work means inventory problems. It is not cost efficient to keep a large amount of supply on hold in case of an emergency. Keeping too much could resolve in high cost related to storage. Keeping too little could mean that when there is a natural disaster and speedy response is needed, there is not enough of basic supplies such as water, food and blankets. In 2009/10 Sofas has rolled out new software tool knows as Hellos (www. Sofas. Org) to he lp with delivering the right supplies, in the appropriate amount, at the best cost, on time to the people who need it the most.It will provide a real time overview of what Sofas has, where it is and owe efficiently it can be moved to where it is needed. Conclusions It can De concluded Tanat even tone oxtail Is a not Tort pronto organization teen 00 understand the importance of operational management and strategies and acting upon it. Sofas sets clear strategies and reviews them every year. It acts upon the need of updating their operation strategies. The core business of Sofas operations is help to people who are in a need of help and support. Its 5 aims are stated and in their Annual report Sofas clearly states percentage of charitable expenditure.However looking closely on everything that Sofas was involved in over the 2010 eroded, it is clear that the greater the need the faster the response and the less important the money involved in the initial response are. Sofas has set proj ects over the period of time and with regards to these it is easy to apply operational strategies and management. It is when a natural or political disaster happen that Sofa's operations change in priority. Sofas has to be highly flexible to be able to fulfill its promises to all its stakeholders. The five performance objectives and its importance are changing. They are affected by outside forces.There is a need of constantly improving its services and overview its operations strategies to avoid failure in delivering its promise. Sofas works in constantly changing world therefore the operations within Sofas are not only important to keep its cost down but are important for the delivery and action of Sofas motto together we will end poverty. Recommendations Sofas has dedicated supply policy. However their policy does not specify how Sofas improves on smoothness of their supply and costs involved with it. In 2009 Sofas has introduced a system that unites all its international organiza tions.

Greek Empire and the Renaissance: Shaping the New World

Other pull factors such as ideas of political, economic, and social freedom along with trade and exploration of nations hat were an inherent part of the European Renaissance lead to the questioning the Catholic Church and its powers over the people, which ultimately led to the desire for a new place to practice these freedoms. The Greek Empire reached its political peak as a result of simple trial and error. Originally, they began as a monarchy, developed into an oligarchy, and finally advanced into what is now known as the first form of democracy, or power of the people.They strongly believed that in order to be a strong, united, successful nation that there had to be an educated electorate, which eater became the central idea of what the founding fathers established this newly emerging nation on: an idea of freedom. The Greek, much like America later on, were split up into different social classes: slaves, non-slaves, men, and women. Women in Greece were not entitled to a social li fe, much less a voice in politics, bit rather picked up their social status along with everything else from their husbands. Likewise, the Roman Empire played a critical role in the discovery and foundation of the New World.The Romans were the strongest, largest Empire throughout history due to heir advancement in technology, their form of government which was even able to withstand a weak leader, and their their powerful military which enabled them to conquer many nations, expanding the empire further than any other, spanning from Turkey to England. As a result of the fall of the Roman Empire, the entirety of Europe experienced two to three-hundred years of little to no progress and religious conflict. During this time, art and culture was being lost and the only knowledge left was what survived in the monasteries; education was scarce.This period was known as the Dark Ages, also known as the Early Middle Ages, which then led to the Renaissance. The Renaissance was a rebirth of clas sical learning. Everything that was lost and forgotten during the Dark Ages was coming to light. During this time, European people gained a sense of hope and individualism rather than tradition. People began thinking for themselves for the first time in hundreds of years and began to explore art, music, drama, philosophy, and most importantly exploration of the world and questioning of the Catholic Church's authority over the people.For example, â€Å"The Roman Catholic Church taught that an individual could gain favor with God by what were called â€Å"good works†. [Martin] Luther believed that he, as a sinner, was condemned in the eyes of God and that nothing could help him. Despite doing many good works, Luther found no peace of mind†¦ Lather's main complaint against the Catholic Church was that it was supporting a system that left sinners in sin – and this was the institution that was meant to save lost souls !!†¦ In October 1517, Luther pinned his †Å"95 Theses† to a church door in Wattenberg. â€Å"(â€Å"Martin Luther. ) When our nodding fathers designed what was the foundation of our country, they brought ideas such as democracy from the Greek Empire and similar social practices such as the split classes. Likewise, practices such as religious freedom, intellect, and art, developed during the Renaissance, were influences that shaped the New World in a powerful way. During a time of desperation for freedom and a fresh start, founding fathers brought the strongest ideas from significant civilizations and time periods in European history, which essentially shaped what we know as the New World.

A Midsummer Night's Dream

A Midsummer Nights Dream Essay Hoffman meets this challenge by showing Titania being carried around by slaves. This is not common in the mortal world so we instantly think we are somewhere different. Also, the lightening creates a feeling of fear. This makes us feel like this is somewhere we dont know much about and we shouldnt be here. During the play, Shakespeare implies that such is the power of dreams, anything can happen. This is shown as six characters sleep throughout the whole play. This is where a lot of the confusion is caused. First of all, the confusion is caused when Puck applies love potion to the lovers eyes. He first does this to Lysander. This is a mistake by Puck as he is supposed to put it on to Demetrius eyes. This first of all causes confusion for Helena, as she cannot understand why Lysander has suddenly fallen in love with her, as he had run away with Hermia because he loved her so much. Hermia is then confused about Lysanders whereabouts when she wakes up. She looks for Lysander and bumps into Demetrius. She is then confused because she thinks that Demetrius has killed Lysander. Demetrius does not have a clue what she is talking about and decides to try it on with Hermia. Oberon informs Puck of his mistake and his task is now to correct his mistake. He must first of all put the love potion on Demetrius eyes. Whilst Puck does this, Oberon applies the potion to Titanias eyes and tells her to wake when some vile creature is near. This is in order to be able to get the small Indian boy. Mischievous Puck, on his way to correct his mistake decides to put an asss head on Bottom. Titania then wakes when Bottom is singing and falls in love with him. Bottom is then confused, as he cannot understand how someone so beautiful has fallen in love with him. Puck adds the love potion to Demetrius eyes. He then wakes up when Helena is near and falls in love with her. Lysander is also at this point in love with Helena. A battle commences between Lysander and Demetrius for Helenas love. Hermia finds Lysander, who is seeking Helenas love. Hermia cannot understand why Helena has done this to her and begins an argument full of jealousy and envy. At this point in the Hoffman version of the film, I noticed that as the argument got worse, Helena and Hermias state of mind became worse. As this happened, so did their clothes. The clothing in the Hoffman version also seems to be metaphorical of the persons state of mind. For example, at this stage in the play, Hermia is very worked up and confused. Her clothing becomes torn and ripped before she finally ends up falling in a big pool of mud whilst fighting with Helena. Helena cant understand why one person who hated her and someone who loved someone else, has suddenly fallen in love with her. She believes it to be mockery. She then turns around the situation and boasts to Hermia about how it is her turn to sit and watch while Helena attracts the opposite sex. The RSC (Adrian Noble) version of the film can be seen to take the film to another level in a way by adding the extra character, which is the small boy. It adds another story. For example, nowhere in the book does it say that after Lysander and Hermia tell Helena of their plan to run away, a small boy runs after them and falls trough a door into space. This is added by the director for effect. Adrian Noble had obviously researched dreaming and what things in dreams signify. To fall in a dream means that trouble is to follow. READ: What Caused The Civil War EssayThis means in the boys real life but trouble does follow in the rest of the play. The last speech of the play, by Puck suggests that we all may have dreamed what we have just seen. The Adrian Noble focuses on this as he makes the play into a dream. By making the film a boys dream with dreamy props used, the audience also feel like they are in a dream. I like both of the two versions in different ways. Some parts of the Noble version of the film are better than the Hoffman version and visa-versa. I do prefer the Adrian Noble version to the Hoffman version, as it appeals to me as a younger audience. I think the Noble version is more magical, as it uses substitutions for realistic things taking the audience to a different place. I did not find it hard to willingly suspend my disbelief and this is probably because the magical element to the play whisks the audience away. It allows you to get wrapped up in a false play. This must be done or the film wouldnt work. The play is all about surreal goings on and I believe that the Hoffman version is too formal for this theme. Some of the scenes are too real and calm. I do prefer the calmness of the first scene in the Hoffman version, to the chaos in the opening scene of the Noble version, as it is a romantic love scene. I believe that the Noble version of the film is aimed at teenagers and young adults because of its humour. It is surreal and is easy for younger people to imagine. The Noble version is also more energetic and upbeat. Because of it being a stage version, a lot of movement is used to help the play flow. The Hoffman version, however, is much more laid back and professional. Because of the huge budget of the film, real props and costumes are being used, which in some cases make the film boring. For example, Pucks costume in the Hoffman version is quite boring compared to the costume in the Noble version. Also, in the Hoffman version, Puck is not active enough and appears slightly lazy in some instances. I find the Noble version more humorous than the Hoffman version in a lot of places. Because of it appealing to a younger audience, the Noble version has to be funny or the audience will lose interest in the film and the willingness to suspend disbelief will be lost. The funniest part of the Noble version has to be where Titania and Bottom share a moment Titanias umbrella, with Bottom making ass sounds. Bottom is the most humorous character in the Noble version and I prefer the Bottom in the Noble version rather than the Hoffman version. The Hoffman version is also humorous in some instances. For example, when Lysander, Demetrius, Helena and Hermia are found naked in the woods by Egeus. The Noble version is definitely more of a fantasy. It emphasises the fact that the play called A Midsummer Nights Dream and concentrates on the dreaming theme. All real objects are substituted. For example, stars are substituted with light bulbs. The Noble version implants real life objects into dreamy objects. This creates a fantasy rather than something literal. The only fantasy in the Hoffman version is the fairy world, which is well created by the producer. I think that the Hoffman version is more romantic and sensual than the Noble version because of its calmness. The Noble version is too active and humorous to be as romantic as the Noble version. For example, the first scene of the Hoffman version is calm and sadistic. There is a fountain flowing in the courtyard whilst Theseus and Hippolyta express their feelings to each other. The Noble version, however, has thins in a room full of bright colours and everything larger than life, which I do not like. For me, the Noble version overpowers the Hoffman version. It beats the Hoffman version in almost every area and as a younger audience I prefer the Adrian Noble film version rather than the Michael Hoffman film version of the play A Midsummer Nights Dream.

International Business Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

International Business Law - Essay Example Over the last decade, the caseload of the ICSID notably increased mainly as a result of an increase in foreign investment practices. Among the 263 registered cases at ICSID as on 30th March 2007, the Argentine government involved in more than 30 cases as an effect of Argentina’s economic crisis (â€Å"Orinton Lawfirm†). ICSID provisions for Boris From the given case context, it is clear that Nonatian government does not give much emphasis on the protection of investor interests. However, Nonatia and Russia (home country of Boris) are signatories to the ICSID. Hence, Boris will be protected by the ICSID provisions even though the Nonatian government does not try to safeguard his financial interests. The ICSID mainly provides conciliation and arbitration facilities to contracting states and nationals of other contracting states in order to resolve investment disputes. Conciliation According to ICSID provisions, Boris may submit a request in writing to the Secretary-Genera l to institute conciliation proceedings if he is not satisfied with the dealing of Nonatian government in future. While requesting for conciliation, Boris has to clearly address detailed information concerning the dispute. The Secretary-General (as cited in Davidson Ciambella) will register the request unless he finds the dispute is outside the jurisdiction of the Center (331-332). As per the provision of Article 29, a Conciliation Commission is constituted immediately after the registration of the conciliation request. The Commission may contain a conciliator or sometimes any uneven numbers of conciliators according to the mutual agreement of both the parties. During the course of conciliation proceedings, the Commission clarifies the causes of disputes between parties with intent to suggest mutually acceptable solutions immediately. At various phases of the proceedings (as cited in Rayfuse,), the Commission may recommend terms of settlement to the parties (ICSID Reports). Under th is practice, both the parties will cooperate in good faith with intent to assist the Commission to carry out its functions smoothly and flawlessly (â€Å"Australian government†). Hence, Boris can ensure maximum cooperation of the Nonatian government on the strength of ICSID provisions because both of them (Nonatian government and Boris) need to give most serious considerations to the Commission’s recommendations. The effective intervention of the ICSID would probably force the Nonatian government to focus more on the needs of Boris; and in fact, this situation assists Boris to take maximum advantages of his investment in Nonatia. It would be an effective method for Boris on the ground of cost and time as it involves simple legal proceedings. However, it seems that conciliation proceedings of ICSID are not much effective for resolving complex disputes, and hence it is recommendable for Boris to seek the help of other ICSID provisions if the issue has multifarious effect s. Arbitration The submission of arbitration request is similar to that of request for conciliation. Once the arbitration request is registered by the General-Secretary, an Arbitration Council is constituted as early as possible. The Arbitration Council consists of arbitrator(s) whereas conciliator(s) represents Conciliation Comm

My generation negative and postive issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

My generation negative and postive issues - Essay Example Even while outside perspectives on Generation Y might overemphasize technology when examining this generation, I recognize that the explosion of the Internet and the personal computer were defining characteristics. In these regards, my generation will be recognized as the last generation to emerge in an era before the Internet. When I consider the implications of such an occurrence, I recognize that it has positive and negative elements. Millennials were the last to experience the unfettered nature of existence prior to the onslaught of technological mediation that accompanied the computer, while at the same time being introduced to this technology at a formative enough period to grasp its more subtle concepts. Undoubtedly future generations growing up in this new world will build on Internet achievements, but they will always lack the more natural connection with the physical world of prior ages. Another prominent defining characteristic of my generation is experiencing the shifting economic stratosphere. This has been a unique experience as the 90s brought unparalleled economic growth and development only to result in a bubble economy that would pop in 1999 and then, as a result of the subprime mortgage crisis, collapse in 2008. I believe this experience has had a negative impact on my generation, as we had become accustomed to one way of living only to have it taken away. When I consider movements such as the Occupy Wall Street protests I recognize that although income disparity is a pressing concern, a great amount of the protestors are simply discontent at their inability to attain high paying employment. I believe growing up in a bubble economy greatly conditioned them to expect this out of life, resulting in a youth culture of entitlement. While there are negative aspects of my generation I also recognize that there is much to be

Mothers abusing prescrition drugs Research Paper

Mothers abusing prescrition drugs - Research Paper Example sociological perspective of drug reality is directly inverse in definition and explanation to what majority call â€Å"chemicalistic fallacy†, which explains that a certain drug causes a certain given behavior and that what we view as behavioral effects are linked with the drug mainly as a function of the drug’s biochemical functions reacting with the organism’s certain structure of its character (Barber 27). The effects of drug and related behavior are highly contingent, variable, and complicated basing more importantly on the social and contextual nature that a person is in as its easier to tell the effects of drug on a person compared to experimenting the drug on a rat which will have very little information on human behavior hence the importance of a social context comes out clear. In defining drugs the sociological aspects focuses on both the meaning of the drug and the meaning of drug experience although the definitions differ among societies, subgroups and subcultures existing within the same society. The society views drug differently according to its current use, in that a substance can be a drug in a specific social context and are something different in another. According to Barber (39), the sociological aspect on drug believes that anything can be termed as a drug not withstanding its biological or physical component. The society draws a clear line between drug addiction and dependence, it states that the addiction-dependence equation have two separable components: the direct drug’s physical action and the behavioral response of the people to the physical action of the drug. There is no automatic translation from one component into the other. Prescription drugs are mostly currently abused by women with a purpose of getting high as a means of relieving stress. The three classification of commonly abused prescribed drugs include: The Opioids including morphine prescribed mostly as pain relievers or pain killers, depressants of the central

Discuss the rationale for Pfizers bid,and explain why Kraft-Cadbury Essay

Discuss the rationale for Pfizers bid,and explain why Kraft-Cadbury has influenced the governments stance on mergers and acquisitions - Essay Example Such kind of mutiny looks scary whereby the fund managers from both Axa and Jupiter will be so disappointed according to the steps taken by AstraZeneca’s board although cannot cause an alarm to an extend resulting to resignation. Mr Lelf Johansson who is the AstraZeneca chairman said that all independent directors in most cases are paid to give their opinion, in case the shareholders seem not to like such opinion; the most likely repercussion is for them to appoint new set of directors. While at Axa together with co sulk, it is clear that Mr. Johansson and his staff should be appreciated because of the wise decision they took on behalf of their company and being calm despite of the difficult times very few company Bosses can behave the way he did to succeed. It has now become clear if not impossible that AstraZeneca’s board could manage to think of any option apart from the  £55 bid if it has to maintain its credibility-at least before the set up date expires for the takeover panel. And since now Pfizer has the ability to bid even higher than  £55 under the prevailing panel’s rules, the whole drama seems to be over now (Depamphilis, 2005). There is no correct explanation as to the reason leading to  £60-ish would stand to be the right tag price. It’s all obvious that all manner of bid battles of which at the end the winner takes it all. The starting point for Pfizer was poor and not impressive, few considered its opening target of  £50 a long shot at the moment but the offer rapidly dropped to  £48 leading to the share drop down of about 6% meaning that the value of its cash together with the share proposal were affected. Under the terms it was supposed to be that the offer for each AstraZeneca shareholder to walk away with 1.845 shares as a group while  £15.98 placed in cash. According to the Pfizer closing share stood at the price worthy $31.15, this means that the offer comes to about GBP50 per each available AstraZeneca

102-Exam1 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

102-Exam1 - Essay Example The modern technology is now being used as a means to gather credible information from all sources that are available. So now there is a combined effort of the management and the systems that are created by the management to process these information. Management Information System (MIS) is a computer-based system that administers the flow of information in an organization, thus allowing them to quickly access precise data. It particularly points to organizational information systems that contain data with huge commercial value (Sadagopan, 2004, p. 1). MIS converts the obtained raw data into useful information which is then disseminated to the different departments of an organization that eventually becomes the source of idea needed by the management for decision making ("Management Information Systems," n.d.). The changes in technology are now becoming the cause of conflict in the application of MIS by organizations. The modification of some computer equipments and gadgets that are important to successfully carry out MIS affects the smooth flow of its operations. The result of which is a delay on the transmission of extremely relevant information. a system to convert data from internal and external sources into information and to communicate that information, in an appropriate form, to managers at all levels in all functions to enable them to make timely and effective decisions from planning, directing, and controlling the activities for which they are responsible. (p. 2) Based on the definition of Lucey, one can never deny the fact the MIS is crucial to the process of decision-making in organizations. Without MIS, the access to the available data would be slower as compared to the times when a company uses it. Thanks to technology, the accumulation of data and its conversion to more useful information has become an easy job. If during the ancient times people had to use their own strength to gather information, the businessmen

Scenario Project & Supervision & Probation Coursework

Scenario Project & Supervision & Probation - Coursework Example Between 1878 and 1938 various states and districts including the federal government set up probation laws. In 1983 electronic monitoring of offenders begins in Mexico followed by Florida. In 1989 a survey indicates that fifty states have adopted intensive probation and other intermediate sanction programs (Anderson, 2010). The probation supervision has developed over the years with states enacting various laws to help in ensuring effective and adequate supervision. These laws have seen the introduction of other types of supervision such as the standard supervision, the unsupervised probation and the informal supervision. Al these have developed in order to make probation supervision easy, convenient and effective (HCDA, 2011). Probation as a process means that it is an investigation that is conducted by a specific court and the supervision of persons in a community. An investigation such that an individual is monitored by a court whether they are changing behavior or not and supervision such that an individual is assigned a person whom they are supposed to report to or who monitors them to make sure they are doing what is right. If they deviating they can be sentenced or the period of probation can be increased (PA,

The First Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the Presidential Seat Essay Example for Free

The First Hundred Days of FDR and Obama in the Presidential Seat Essay Two Presidents took up the Presidential seat under the time of an economic recession in the United States. These two are Former President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (widely known as FDR) and President Barrack Obama, the newly elected President in last year’s elections. Both have entered the presidential scene in a time of great economic crisis; in FDR’s time was the Great Depression and in Obama’s, a mirror or reoccurrence of the Great Depression. The former successfully dealt with the Great Depression, rescuing the country from economic collapse and impending civil unrest—if the crisis would continue. The latter is expected by the public to deliver the same performance under the same economic situation, hoping that everything would be fine in the nearest possible future. Comparing the two president’s first hundred days in the presidential seat, they exert the aura of hope as seen by the public eye when they first took up the presidential seat, to deliver the country from a worsening economic meltdown. In his first few days of office, President Franklin D. Roosevelt immediately aimed for rescuing the United States’ economy from the Great Depression—a massive economic recession. It was a challenge for the President-elect to save the country from such a sinkhole but he already laid out plans on how he would be able to achieve this primary goal. The first thing that he aimed for was to close all the banks in the country, declaring a bank â€Å"holiday†. This was done in order for the government and these bankers to assess the situation and plan out a strategy in order to regain control of the deteriorating economy. The Emergency Banking Bill was implemented in order to reorganize banks in the country, and later to reopen these under a new structure, which proved to be a great move by the president. After his terms in the office, he was regarded as a model for succeeding presidents to follow as he was able to achieve so many great things in the face of crisis—from the Great Depression to the Second World War. During his first hundred days, he was able to stabilize the American economy, avoiding its further downfall. Presidents that followed tried to recreate FDR’s term. The recent president-elect Barrack Obama has probably felt the same pressure as what FDR felt during his first hundred days in the office, entering the scene upon which the country is suffering a similar economic downturn; Dà ©jà   vu as many economists and historians would believe. However, the question still remains: would he be able to pull off the same stunts as that of the late FDR? Somehow, President Obama is showing some signs of promise in his first few days in the office. He initially concentrated with the stabilizing the country’s economy but later on concentrated on establishing better relationships with other countries—some of which are â€Å"enemies† of the United States. Even so, it still did not replicate the great achievement of FDR in his first few days in office: saving the economy from a deep sinkhole. However, it could also be assumed that Obama’s version of the â€Å"rescue† is still on the planning stages as the administration could not afford any mistakes in conducting this economic rescue plan. Also, the people have not given up hope on President Obama to deliver them from this economic tragedy in the United States. There is not much difference between the two except for the fact that FDR has successfully stabilized the economy to a more controllable level in his first hundred days in the office. He exercised an immediate relief plan for the United States government and its people, in order to save them from the spites of the Great Depression. President Obama aims to replicate this achievement as the country is currently facing the same situation. At the same time, he aimed to establish better relationships with other nations, control overseas matters, and turn the government into a transparent entity. These two presidents have shared a similar fate when they entered the presidency. They were expected by the public to relieve the country from further economic downfall, as these people considered them as a ray of hope for a better America in the future. References Kangas, S. (1997). The First 100 Days. The Great Depression: Its Causes and Cure. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://www.huppi.com/kangaroo/First100days.htm Smith, J. E. (2009, January 16). How F.D.R. Made the Presidency Matter. 100 Days: Starting the Job, From F.D.R. to Obama. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://100days.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/how-fdr-made-the-presidency-matter/ Talev, M. (2009, April 26). Obama’s first 100 days in office haven’t been quite. McClatchy Newspapers. Retrieved April 27, 2009 from http://news.yahoo.com/s/mcclatchy/20090426/pl_mcclatchy/3217776

The Learner Centered Approach

The Learner Centered Approach Since ancient times, a drive towards an ideal learning process has been the subject of study for psychologists, philosophers and educators. This investigative research has put forward various modern methodologies used in classroom. Through this quest, the pedagogical practices have moved from a teacher centered approach to the more engaging learner centered approach, whereby learners are regarded as stakeholders in their learning process. They are expected to be active participants and responsible decision makers in the teaching -learning dynamics. The learner centered approach promotes the idea that students should have greater input into what they learn and how they learn it. This is expected to make learning more valuable and relevant to the learners. More importantly, it is expected to make learners autonomous. However, there is no real learners autonomy because every decision regarding the design of the curriculum to the selection of activities chosen is hand-picked by the teach er (Lynch, 2010). Learners Autonomy The concatenation towards a learner-centered approach has resulted in the concept of learners autonomy. Learners are considered autonomous when they are self-directed and take responsibility of their own learning. The main proponent of learners autonomy, Holec (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) defines it as the ability to take charge of ones learning (n.p). For the learner to be proactive and self initiator of his learning, he needs to be imbibed by certain characteristics. Autonomous learners are insightful of their individual learning preferences in terms of styles and strategies. They are self activated participants in the learning process. They are risk takers and resort to the use of target language in the learning process. They incorporate intelligent guesswork in learning. They emphasize accuracy as well as appropriacy; and therefore give simultaneous attention to form and content. They analyze and negotiate rules to reject inapplicable hypotheses and proceed through the target language by placing it into a separate reference system. They are extroverts and have a forward looking and tolerant approach to target language learning. (Thanasoulas, 2000) Theoretical Underpinnings Learners autonomy and learner-centered approach take their foundational principles from the educational philosophy of constructivism. Constructivism advocates that learners must individually discover and transform complex information if they are to make it their own (Slavin, 2010). According to Candy (as cited in Thanasoulas, 2000) constructivism leads directly to the proposition that knowledge cannot be taught but only learned (n.p). The chief premise of constructivism is that learners learn by doing through personalizing and internalizing the subject matter. In this way, learning is seen as subjective and learners are seen as the chief architects of their learning (Lynch, 2010). Constructivism was shaped by the works of Piaget, Vygotsky and Dewey among others. Both Piaget and Vygotsky argue that cognitive change takes place only when previous conceptions go through a process of disequilibration in light of new information. Piaget believes in giving problems to learners that encourage them to manipulate concrete objects. In such a problem based learning, learners build upon their prior assumptions and arrive at solutions to the problems (Henson, 2003). Vygotskys social constructivism introduced the concept of cooperative learning whereby he concludes that knowledge can not be constructed in isolation and therefore, needs learners to cooperate among themselves to work towards knowledge construction (Henson, 2003). Taking the idea further, Deweys view of learner-centered education embraced the idea that education should be both problem-based and fun. Each experience should leave the learner motivated and the solving of each problem must lead to new, related questions about the topic (Henson, 2003). Dewey advocated letting learners experience their learning first hand to enable them to value their learning as subjective and relevant to them (Lynch, 2010). Dewey also stressed upon the idea of confluent or collateral learning, which emphasizes the involvement of learners emotions or affective aspect in how they learn. This marks the shift of focus from the cognitive aspect only which deals with how the mind actually functions, how it processes information or is affected by each individuals perceptions (Reid, 1987) to the affective factor that takes into consideration the emotional filter within a learner as well. The idea comes from the acknowledgement that every learner is distinct in mental and emotional makeup, interests and goals, learning pace, learning style, talent, feeling of efficacy and frames of reference. To make the learning process independent, efficient and effective for the learner, these factors must be considered worthy of attention when designing learning activities (Henson, 2003). Similarly, the learner on his part needs to be aware of his LS based on his mental and emotional system to be able to become an autonomous learner. This marks a departure from the uniformity of practice in institutions where learners are taken as a whole without regard for their diversity. Researchers now agree that it is futile to search for the single best way to achieve a broad educational outcome, in large part because learners do not fit a single mould (Guild, 2011). Learning Styles Their Classifications In Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn and Griggs define LS as, The way students begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and remember new and difficult academic information. (p. 1). Dunn and Dunn define learning styles as A term that describes the variations among learners in using one or more senses to understand, organize, and retain experience (Tabanlioglu, 2003). Various learning styles have been proposed by various researchers. Myers -Briggs type indicator. One such classification is by Myers -Briggs (1943) who developed their Personality Type Indicator for studying how people function according to their attitude towards life. It later came to be used in education, since personality type is an indicator of how one learns (Cohen, 2006). In their polar opposite sets of four personality types, there is dichotomous pairing of introverts and extroverts. Introverts are solitude driven and introspective, while extroverts are social and externally inclined. Introverts deal with abstract concepts while extroverts are action oriented (Cohen, 2008). Sensing personality type prefer literal and chronological presentation of information. They rely on the use of five senses in how they learn (Cohen, 2008). Conversely, intuitors predominantly use the sixth sense to work through problems (Din, 2006). They are more interested in the possibilities, implications and interconnectedness of ideas and facts (Cohen, 2008). Within the pair of thinking vs feeling, the thinking learners make decisions objectively without letting an interference of emotions (Din, 2006). On the contrary, feeling learners decisions are guided by their subjective and personally held values (Cohen, 2008). Finally, there is the dichotomy between judging and perceiving. Judging learners are driven by planning and meeting deadlines (Cohen, 2008). Self-directed as they are, judging learners take a careful analysis of things before initiating a task, but take ownership of their decisions Perceptive learners are more spontaneous and adaptive, but do not value deadlines. They like to modify tasks to make them flexible for themselves (Din, 2006). Dunn Dunns LS model. In Accounting for Learning Styles (2009) Dunn Dunns model is explained, in which learners are characterized according to their strengths. Individual instructional preferences arise out of an awareness of those strengths. Developed in 1967, this model judges learners according to how they react to 21 elements arranged within five broad categories, namely; environmental, emotional, sociological, physiological and psychological. Learners have different preferences in each category, based upon which their performance can vary. Felder and Silverman LS model. In 1987, Felder created an assessment model, better known as the Felder and Silverman model, to study the learning preferences of learners. Based upon this assessment, they categorized learners into four dichotomous pairs. According to them, learners can be grouped as active/reflective, sensing/intuitive, visual/verbal, and sequential/global. Active learners activate themselves to acquire new information. Such learners prefer discussion and application of knowledge within group work. Reflectors, on the other hand, prefer to interact individually with the information. Reflective processing involves examining and manipulating the information introspectively (Felder Solomon, 2012). Sensors tend to be concrete and methodical, whereas intuitors are abstract and imaginative. Sensing and intuitive learners prefer discovery based learning, in which they like exploring possibilities and relationships. They like solving problems, but sensors like experimentation, while intuitors prefer to deal with underlying concepts. Sensors like surprises, while intuitors prefer innovation and repetition bores them. Both are practical, but intuitors are faster in grasping details (Felder Solomon, 2012). As the name suggests, visual learners learn best through visualizing content. On the contrary, verbal learners learn through words. Hence, information is processed more effectively and efficiently when presented visually for visual learners and verbally for verbal learners (Felder Solomon, 2012). Sequential learners are more methodical and linear in their approach to learning. They connect newly acquired information to previously known information and proceed in logical steps of knowledge construction. On the other hand, global learners tend to absorb content in fragments, without arranging it in their minds. They solve problems but find it hard to explain how they arrived at the conclusion (Felder Solomon, 2012). Gregorcs mind styles. Gregorc (1985) developed a mind styles inventory that categorizes learners in four patterns of learning. Concrete sequential learners learn through logical sequencing and factual arrangement of information (Putintseva, 2006). They rely on structured learning and practicality and look to find clear answers without any abstraction (Din, 2009). Abstract random learners are more harmonious with abstract, conceptual thinking and work well in groups. Their learning comes from personalizing knowledge. They prefer a sensitive and flexible environment with broad instructions and are not open to critical feedback. On the other hand, abstract sequential learners are more analytical and like to work alone. Decision making and eventual application of ideas comes much after analysis in a challenging environment. They find it hard to follow too many rules and regulations within a task (Putintseva, 2006). Their approach is theoretical and analytical (Din, 2009). The concrete ra ndom learners are independent and creative (Din, 2009). These learners take risks and use their intuitive abilities in solving problems. They are competitive and believe in a trial and error approach to solve problems without any formal restrictions and limitations (Putintseva, 2006). Kolbs experiential learning cycle LS model. The most important classification of LS comes from David Kolb (1984), who based his model on the experiential learning theory. The model thrives on the concept of learners practical experiences forming the backbone of learning. Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines experiential learning as, The process of creating and transforming experience into knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, emotions, beliefs and senses. It is the process through which individuals become themselves (p.49). Kolbs work on experiential learning has its roots in the work of Dewey, Lewin and Piaget. Dewey argues that learners uniqueness as a result of their prior experiences should be acknowledged in their learning process. Dewey (as cited in Din, 2009) refers to learning from, through and to the experience (p.68). He proposes the process of concrete experience, observation and reflection, formation of abstract concepts and generalization, and testing implications of concepts in new situation (Din, 2009). Kurt Lewin, organizes elements within his model in the sequence of apprehension concrete experience, observation and reflection, abstract concepts and generalization and testing implementations of concepts (Din, 2009). Piaget propounds that learners acts of intelligence are biologically time tabled. The concept of cognitive structure is central to his theory, which explains how experiences shape intelligence. He elaborates this through four developmental stages in a learner, namely, the sensory motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage. Sensory motor is a self-centered stage from birth to two years of age. This is followed by the cognitive intuitive stage called the preoperational stage. This lasts from three to seven years of age followed by the concrete operational stage up to twelve years of age. In this stage, logical approach is developed in learners. In the formal operational stage, learners develop higher order skills and think deeply to conserve knowledge (Din, 2009). Kolb (as cited in Din, 2009) defines learning through experiential cycle as, The process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience (p.50). He represents four stages in his famous experiential learning circle. This cyclical experiential learning model is learner focused and emphasizes the process of learning instead of the outcome (Din, 2009). Kolb believes concrete experience as the most likely point of initiation within this cycle of learning. Concrete experience advocates the underlying idea of learning through experiencing acquisition in a situational context. Next stage is reflective observation where the learner detaches himself from active engagement and takes an objective stock of the process and its outcome. Abstract conceptualization is a deeper, theoretical analysis of ideas. It is the intellectual processing of knowledge. Active experimentation is the eventual outcome of this cycle where the learner is expected to make use of the refined knowledge acquired and understood through the three step process and to be able to use it in novel situations. This is the stage that tests the understanding of the learner through application (Mobbs, n.d). Learning occurs when the dimensions in Kolbs experiential learning cycle are used in combination. Based upon these combinations, Kolb identifies learners as divergers, assimilators, convergers and accommodators. Divergers use a combination of concrete experience and reflective observation (Din, 2009). They are sensitive and have the ability to look at situations from different perspectives. They are imaginative, emotionally driven and receptive to feedback. Their understanding is shaped by their feelings and observations (Putintseva, 2006).They get their name from the fact that they learn well in situations that require them to generate broad range of ideas (Seca Santiago, 2003) The assimilators prefer a more logical approach in which conceptual understanding is of prime importance. They combine the use of abstract conceptualization reflective observation (Din, 2009). They do not grasp information holistically, but arrange it in logical, mental constructs. (Putintseva, 2006). They judge ideas for their theoretical value and not for their practicality (Seca Santiago, 2003). The combination of abstract conceptualization and active experimentation gives birth to converging style of learning (Din, 2009). The covergers get their name from the fact that their learning is optimized when they have to converge at one answer to a problem. Convergers learn through a problem solving approach and find solutions to problems. They engage with technicalities and are sound decision makers. Polar opposite of the divergers, learners with a converging style experiment with new ideas and to work with practical applications. On the other hand, accommodators rely on intuition and have an experiential approach to learning. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences. However, their experiential approach is more discovery based and the result of intuition rather than logical thinking. (Putintseva, 2006). Honey Mumfords LS model. Although Felder and Silverman model and Gregorcs mind styles came soon after Kolbs model and seem evidently inspired by it, no other model is as similar to Kolbs model as Honey and Mumfords LS classification. Honey and Mumford (1986) have based their LS classification on Kolbs Experiential Learning Model and admit that there are far more similarities between the two than differences. Honey and Mumford (1986) developed their inventory of four learning styles, namely Activist Reflector, Theorist and Pragmatist. Activists are experience driven and their enthusiasm pushes them to take immediate risks. Their learning comes from actively engaging in the experience. They tend to act first and consider the consequences of their actions later. Reflectors take a cautious approach and ponder analytically over ideas and experiences (Seca Santiago, 2003). They listen and observe to master the issue and do not participate till they have done so. Being assimilating learners, their learning is enhanced in situations that allow them to reflect and then make decisions (Din, 2009). Theorists are objective learners who take stock of an idea, information or experience and try to mould them into their own theoretical models. They are deep thinkers and try to relate concepts and ideas. For them sound organization of knowledge matters the most (Din, 2009). Their rational approach leads them to analyze and synthesize information (Seca Santiago, 2003) Finally, learning is fruitful to pragmatists only if they can feel its practical utility in their life outside the classroom. They are not merely concerned with the practicality of an experience, but are equally interested in its impact. This is what makes them open and receptive to constructive feedback. They fossilize newly learnt information through immediate application (Din, 2009). Their decision making is based on practicality of an idea (Seca Santiago, 2003). Apart from Honey Mumfords own admission of generating their learning styles from Kolbs model, other theorists and researchers have also studied and related the two. Seca and Santiago (2003) found significant correlation between Honey and Mumfords reflector and Kolbs reflective observation, Honey and Mumfords pragmatist and Kolbs active experimentation and Honey and Mumfords theorist and Kolbs abstract conceptualization. Based upon the fact that Kolbs learning styles emerge out of a combination of traits within his experiential cycle, a stage wise break up of Kolbs learning cycle that generate relationship between Kolbs LS and Honey and Mumfords LS is shown. Relationship between Kolbs and Honey Mumfords Learning Styles Stage in Kolbs Experiential Learning Cycle Dimensions in Kolbs Experiential Learning Cycle Kolbs Learning Styles Honey Mumfords Learning Styles Stage 1 Concrete Experience Accomodating Activist Stage 2 Reflective Observation Diverging Reflector Stage 3 Abstract Conceptualization Assimilating Theorist Stage 4 Active Experimentation Converging Pragmatist Language Learning Strategies Their Classifications On the other hand, learners use language learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously in processing new information to grasp, understand and retain concepts. Wenden and Rubin (as cited in Hismanoglu, 2000) define learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information (n.p). Meyer (as cited in Clouston, 1997) defines LLS as behaviours of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner processes information (n.p). Cohen (as cited in Shabani and Sarem, n.d) defines LLS as the conscious thoughts and behaviors used by learners with explicit goal of improving their knowledge of a target language (p.3). One of the most widely accepted definition comes from Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) who looks at LLS as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situatio ns (p. 164). In view of the definitions above, LLS can be understood as individual ways of processing information that aid comprehension, learning or retention of the information. Most of the work on LLS took place in the 80s and 90s. When it comes to classifying LLS, many taxonomies exist. However, a chronological review of the four most widely known classifications is discussed. O Malleys classification of LLS. O Malley (1985) divides language learning strategies into three main subcategories, namely, metacognitive strategies, cognitive strategies and socioaffective strategies. Metacognitive strategies are related to the planning of the task before initiation, self monitoring of the process and post task analysis. Cognitive strategies require the learner to be more directly and actively involved in the manipulation of the learning material. It includes note-taking, translating, contexualizing and inferencing to acquire knowledge. Socioaffective strategies involve social engagement for the sake of transaction of information to learn (Hismanoglu, 2000). Rubins classification of LLS. Rubins (1987) came up with a distinction between direct and indirect strategies, later refined by Oxford. His classification includes learning strategies, communication strategies, and social strategies, which are thought to contribute directly or indirectly to the learning process. Learning strategies branch out into cognitive learning strategies and metacognitive learning strategies. These strategies look to manipulate the material through direct analysis and/or synthesis. It can include techniques such as clarification, inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization or monitoring. Communication strategies, on the other hand, aid in bridging the gap in communication that may lead to a communication break down. It can be used for clarification, asking questions and to remain a part of the conversation while learning (Zare, 2012). Oxfords classification of LLS. The most comprehensive classification of LLS to date comes from Oxford (1990), who has refined and structured her predecessors work by making a taxonomy based on six sub-classifications within two broad categories. Direct LLS are divided into memory, cognitive and compensation strategies, while indirect LLS include metacognitive, affective and social strategies. Oxford (as cited in Zare, 2012) clarifies the difference between the two as, all direct strategies require mental processing of the language while all indirect strategies provide indirect support for language learning (p. 165). Within direct strategies, memory strategies enable learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly string as through acronyms, while other techniques create learning and retrieval through images, as in creating a mental picture, or through sounds, such as rhyming, or a combination of both, as using keywords to remember and retain the information. There can be use of other stimuli like mechanically, through flashcards or by using location, such as on a page or board or through body movements, as through total physical response. The second type of direct strategies are the cognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies enable the learner to use such methods as reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, reorganizing information to create knowledge structures, and practicing structures and sounds formally to manipulate the language material in direct ways. They are meant to create structures for input and output. Compensation strategies, the third type of direct strategies, employ tactics such as guessing, using synonyms and fillers or using gestures to help make up for gaps within communicative knowledge. They are more in use for averting language break down and not strictly language learning strategies. Among the indirect strategies, metacognitive strategies indirectly manipulate learning by the use of identifying ones own learning style preferences and planning accordingly. It includes gathering and organizing materials, arranging a study space and a schedule, monitoring mistakes, and evaluating task success, managing the learning process. Affective strategies, the second type of indirect strategies, are strategies to exert control over ones level of anxiety, mood, feelings, reception of material and the learning process. They are meant to control learners attitude while they engage with their learning. Finally, the third type of indirect strategies known as social strategies, are related to the inevitable need for communication with others within a task. They help the learner move forward in an informed way by asking questions for clarification or verification. Moreover, they can ask for help and while doing so, unconsciously assimilate the target cultural norms (Oxford, 2003). Sterns classification of LLS. Stern (1992) grouped LLS into five classes: management and planning strategies, cognitive strategies, communicative-experiential strategies, interpersonal strategies and affective strategies. Management and planning strategies are associated with empowering the learners to control their own learning. The learners can committ themselves to language learning; set themselves reasonable goals; select an appropriate methodology, choose relevant resources, and monitor progress. Moreover, they need to evaluate and match their level of achievement with the determined goals and expectations. Cognitive strategies refer to procedures and activities which learners use for improvement in their learning and retaining ability. They also enable learners to solve problems, especially those actions which learners use with specific classroom tasks. When using cognitive strategies, the learners can guess, clarify, verify, practice, memorize or monitor their learning. To avoid interruption within the communicative interaction, learners use techniques such as circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrasing, asking for repetition and explanation. These techniques form part of the strategies known as communicative strategies. Interpersonal strategies monitor learners development and progress. Familiarity with target culture is achieved through the use of these strategies, without which language acquisition remains incomplete. Affective strategies have an inevitable role in language learning. Feeling of unfamiliarity with a foreign language can lead to varying emotions, attitude and motivation within learners. To remain emotionally focused and motivated can be achieved through the use of affective strategies (Zare, 2012). Language Learning Strategies Used at the Graduate Level Learners at the graduate level have their own characteristics. They are willing to explore their preferred way of learning more out of a demand for autonomy that arises due to a shift in their role as they make a transition from school to college than a conscientious effort to know their LS and use of LLS. A research carried out by Gujjar, Naoreen and Aslam (2010) studied the LLS used by graduate learners in formal and non-formal education systems in Pakistan. Based on Oxfords taxonomy of LLS, the findings of their study indicated that there was no significant difference in learners from both systems in their use of direct strategies. They indicated a similar trend in their use of memory, cognitive and compensation strategies. In terms of indirect strategies, formal learners used more social strategies in language learning. However, no significant difference was found between the students from formal and non-formal systems of education on the use of meta-cognitive and affective strat egies of language learning (Gujjar et al, 2010). Relationship Between Learning Styles Language Learning Strategies: A Review of Previous Researches When left on their own and if not explicitly encouraged by the teacher to use a certain set of strategies, students typically use learning strategies that reflect their basic learning styles (Oxford, 2003). This asserts the opinion by many educationists that LLS do not operate by themselves, but are tied to the learners underlying natural tendency to learn in a particular way known as LS. It is interesting to note that many learners selection and employment of LLS is random and unconscious. To be able to optimize efficiency in learning, learners need to be familiar with their LS to know which strategies are most appropriate to their LS and to the task at hand, since a relationship is considered to exist between the learners LS and their choice of LLS. However, whereas there are significant researches in the area of studying the relationship between LS or LLS and certain variables, such as demographic factors, not much work is present in studying the relationship between learners LS and LLS. Ehrman and Oxford (1989) conducted a study regarding overall personality type as measured by Myers-Briggs Type indicator (MBTI). It was found that extroverts indicated a significantly greater use of affective strategies and visualization strategies than the introverts. However, introverts were reported to use more frequent manipulation of strategies requiring communication of meaning. Compared to sensing learners, intuitive learners used more affective, formal model building, functional practice and searching for and communicating meaning strategies. Feeling-type learners, as compared to thinkers, displayed greater use of general study strategies. Perceivers made use of more strategies for searching for and communicating meaning than the judgers, who demonstrated more frequent use of general study strategies than did perceivers (Tabanlioglu, 2003). Ehrman and Oxford (1990) studied the relationship between LS and LLS through semi-structured interviews. They used MBTI-G (Myers and McCaulley, 1985) for learning styles and the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) for preferred LLS. The results showed that the preferred LLS for each pair of LS were in an appropriately matched distribution. It could be safely concluded that LS may significantly influence their choices of LLS (Shi, 2011) Another research concerned with the relationship between LS and LLS conducted by Jie Li and Xiaoqing Qin (2006) in Chinese tertiary level learners used the Chinese version of MBTI-G and a questionnaire on the use of LLS adapted from OMalley and Chamots classification. Both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the data revealed that LS have a significant influence on learners selection of LLS. Moreover, it also investigated the influence of